Though we promised to explore Baybars’ juggling of relations between Mengü Timur and the Byzantines, first we must delve more into his campaigns against the Franks –– a real show of military and diplomatic genius.
A Phoenix Rises from The Ashes
By the mid-13th century, the Crusader States— once formidable creations of European ambition following the First Crusade — were teetering on the edge. Their early triumphs, crowned by the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, had forged Latin Christian realms: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, sprawling over parts of modern-day Palestine and Jordan; the County of Tripoli, nestled in present-day Lebanon and parts of Syria; the Principality of Antioch, rooted in what is now southern Turkey and northwestern Syria; and the County of Edessa, extending into southeastern Turkey.
Yet, the winds of fortune had shifted. The fall of Jerusalem to Salah al-Din (Saladin) in 1187 ignited a resurgence among the Muslim forces, reducing the Crusader States to isolated coastal enclaves—Acre, Jaffa, Tripoli, Antioch—struggling to survive on dwindling European supplies. Against the rising tide of the Mamluk power, these states were flickering candles in a hundred-year storm.
Sultan Baybars, a man driven by an insatiable passion for history, knew the value of remembering past horrors. Often, he would sit with Qadi Muhyiddin ibn Abdi’l-Zahir, revisiting the massacre of July 15, 1099, when the Crusaders had brutally captured Jerusalem. These memories stirred his blood, urging him to eradicate the Crusader presence once and for all. His first encounter with the Franks came in 1261. As he bid farewell to the new Abbasid Caliph, al-Mustansir Billah, who was set on reconquering Baghdad; John Ibelin, the Count of Jaffa, approached Baybars with gifts and a peace proposal. According to the agreement, the sea trade of wheat and barley from Damietta to Jaffa would continue uninterrupted.
But the ink had hardly dried on the peace agreement with Jaffa when Baybars’ ambitions surged. In 1261, he dispatched Emir Jamal al-Din Muhammad with a small Mamluk unit to raid the Baalbek region, still under Frankish control. The swift raid alarmed the Franks, who quickly proposed a new peace deal. Yet, when Baybars demanded the surrender of several key castles, negotiations collapsed into a tense stalemate.
Oh, those sanctions!
Undeterred, Baybars continued his raids. In retaliation, the Franks imposed a blockade, halting all goods from Europe to the Mamluk state by sea. Egypt, deprived of essential imports, saw prices soar, triggering a financial crisis that forced Baybars to reluctantly accept the Franks’ earlier peace offer. A new treaty was signed under the same terms as the one with the Ayyubid King al-Nasir — Baybars would cease his raids on Baalbek, and both sides agreed to exchange prisoners.
The peace agreement with the Franks seemed at odds with Baybars’ fiery nature, but he had good reason. He was embroiled in a fierce struggle with al-Malik al-Mugith, the Naib of Kerak, and could not risk fighting on two fronts. Accepting the Franks’ terms allowed him to focus his might on a single enemy while biding his time for future campaigns against the Crusaders.
Yet, the peace was short-lived. Soon after, Baybars discovered that the Zubeid Arabs had allied with the Franks, launching attacks on Mamluk lands. Without hesitation, he sent an army to crush them, reasserting his dominance. As the Qur’an says: “Indeed, Allah loves those who fight in His cause in a row as though they are a single structure joined firmly.” (Surah As-Saff 61:4). Baybars knew the strength of unity in the face of adversity.
With Jaffa and Beirut temporarily pacified, Baybars saw his chance to strike at other Crusader remnants not shielded by the treaty. In Ramadan of 660 AH (August 1262), he sent his forces to Antioch, ruled by Bohemond IV. The campaign was swift and brutal; the port of Sidon burned, and 250 Frankish prisoners were paraded back to Cairo.
Though bound by a treaty, Baybars’ eyes never left the horizon. He knew a potential alliance between the Franks and the Mongols, or the arrival of European reinforcements could spell disaster. His resolve was unyielding: the Franks would not be left unchecked. Each move, each treaty, was merely a maneuver in a larger game — one that would end with their complete defeat.
The Tiger Strikes Again
On a crisp morning in March 1263, Baybars set his plan in motion. Feigning a hunting trip, he rode hard and fast to the gates of Kerak, his men close behind. The surprise was total. The son of al-Malik al-Mugith was caught unawares and surrendered without a fight. Victorious, Baybars wasted no time. His gaze turned westward, toward the Crusader fortresses that lined the coast like jagged teeth.
With a pretext ready, Baybars accused the Franks of breaking the fragile peace by fortifying Arsuf and mistreating Muslim merchants. His demands were bold—immediate surrender of the castles of Shaqif and Safed. The Franks, stunned, scrambled to appease him, releasing Muslim prisoners and adjusting the treaty terms. But Baybars was relentless; he launched a raid on Acre. Knowing the fortified city would not easily fall, he set fire to a church near its walls, hoping to provoke the defenders. When they refused to take the bait, his men plundered the surrounding countryside and returned victorious.
Baybars knew he was only getting started. He led raids on Acre in April, his attacks swift and destructive, keeping the Franks in constant dread. Smaller-scale incursions continued to harass their northern allies, including the Armenian Kingdom. He kept his enemies off balance, ensuring they could not unite against him.
Baybars watched the Franks closely, like a hawk circling its prey. He knew that if they were allowed to unite their scattered forces, they could become a formidable threat. To prevent this, he struck preemptively, sending his forces to Jaffa, Aslis, and Caesarea, scattering the Crusaders like leaves before a storm. Until March 1265, he kept his campaigns small, probing, testing their strength, waiting for the right moment.
That moment came with chilling news in the winter of 1264: the Franks were in league with the Mongols, urging them to attack Bira. Two enemies, combining their might, could spell the end of his reign. Baybars could not wait. In February 1265, he marched with renewed fury against the Franks, setting his sights on the great fortress of Caesarea.
Under the pretext of a hunting expedition, Baybars moved through the forests around Arsuf, eyes sharp, noting every vulnerability. By February 27, 1265, his army was at Caesarea’s gates. The Franks believed their fortress impregnable, protected by the sea and deep moats. But Baybars’ siege was relentless, attacking from land and sea until the fortress fell on March 5, 1265. Not content with the victory, he ordered Caesarea’s walls razed to the ground, ensuring they would never rise again.
A Relentless Campaign and a New Stronghold
With Caesarea under his control, Baybars turned his attention to Arsuf. His forces split, attacking from multiple fronts, keeping the Franks confused and desperate. Haifa fell quickly; its defenders, shocked by the swift assault, surrendered almost without a fight. But Arsuf held out longer. Determined to break their will, Baybars fought on the front lines, digging trenches, carrying wood to burn the gates, and driving his men forward. After a month of fierce resistance, the Franks surrendered on April 27, 1265. Baybars, ever merciless, forced the captives to tear down their own walls.
Triumphant but restless, he returned to Cairo. His eyes were already set on his next target— Safed, one of the largest Frankish strongholds in Syria. In May 1266, he left his son al-Malik Sa’id as his deputy in Cairo and marched north. Acre had fortified itself, postponing its capture. Instead, Baybars moved toward Safed, splitting his forces to cut off any reinforcements.
Arriving at Safed, he waited, biding his time, watching for any sign of weakness. When the castle refused to surrender, he unleashed his full might. Catapults battered the walls, but still, the defenders held on. Impatient, Baybars demanded their surrender under harsh terms—no weapons, no valuables, no destruction of provisions. Sensing their desperation, he offered them gifts to hasten their decision.
By July 13, 1266, the Franks, exhausted and broken, agreed to his terms. Baybars personally oversaw their evacuation, inspecting each one. When he discovered attempts to smuggle captives and arms, his response was swift—all but two were executed.
With Safed secured, Baybars established it as a base for future operations in Syria. He strengthened its walls, stocked it with supplies and soldiers, and settled civilians within its fortified embrace. He knew the battle was far from over, but for now, he had drawn a line in the sand. He was the tiger of Egypt, and his roar echoed across the Levant, a promise that no enemy would be left standing.
References
Ibn Abdi’l-Zahir, Jamal al-Din. Siret al-Zahir Baybars.
Al-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Ali. Kitab al-Suluk li-Ma’rifat Duwal al-Muluk. Vol. 1.
Al-Yunini, Ibn. Zeyl.
Khowaitir, Abdul Rahman. Baibars the First.
Ibn Tanrıberdi, Nur al-Din ‘Ali Ibn Dawud. En-Nujum al-Zahira fi Muluk Misr wa al-Qahira. Vol. 9.
Al-Qalqashandi, Shihab al-Din Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Ali. Subh al-A’sha. Vol. 14.
Ibn Shaddad, Baha al-Din. Siret al-Malik al-Zahir.
Cahen, Claude. La Syrie du Nord à l’Époque des Croisades.
El Errante, interested in all things Turkic, posts on X @elerrantenomad