In the mid-13th century, the political landscape of the Middle East and surrounding regions was a complex tapestry of alliances, conflicts, and shifting powers. Sultan Baybars, a formidable military leader and statesman, emerged as a central figure during this turbulent period. His ascent to power in 1260 marked the beginning of a new era for the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt, one that would see the consolidation of Muslim power and the formation of critical alliances, particularly with the Golden Horde. At that time, Berke Khan had already established himself as the leader of the Golden Horde. Ascending to power in 1257, Berke Khan showed a keen interest in Islam, eventually converting and becoming a significant Muslim ruler.
Berke Khan, the grandson of the great Genghis Khan, also had direct Kipchak ancestry through his mother, Khan Sultan, a princess from the Khwarazm-Shah dynasty. Her father was Khwarazm-Shah Muhammad II, also known as Ala ad-Din Muhammad, who died in 1220 while fleeing from the advancing Mongol forces led by Genghis Khan. Thus, Berke Khan’s grandfathers were two of the most powerful rulers of their time and had faced each other in battle. This heritage played a role in Berke’s upbringing and later influenced his conversion to Islam.
Thanks to the information provided by the embassy sent by Baybars to the Golden Horde, it is possible to draw a portrait of Berke Khan. According to Al-Mufaddal’s records, “at this time (1262-1263), Berke Khan, who was 56 years old, had a sparse beard, large eyes, a yellow complexion, and his hair was combed back behind his ears. Berke, who had a gold earring in the shape of a ring in one ear, wore a silk robe, a fur cap on his head, a leather belt around his waist, and instead of a sword, he had gilded curved horns on his belt.”
During the time of Berke Khan, who transformed the Golden Horde into a great state, significant developments were taking place in the life of the Mongol Empire. Hulagu, with his assembled army, completed the conquest of the whole of Iran within two and a half years by 1256. He not only captured Alamut Castle, the Assassin (Batini) stronghold, in 1256, ending their dominance but also occupied Baghdad in 1258, bringing an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. Following these events, a new Mongol state, known in history as the Ilkhanate, was established, encompassing the territories of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and the Caucasus.
As soon as the conquests in Iran ended in 1260, a dispute arose between Berke and Hulagu over the territory of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan, with its fertile pastures, was highly coveted. Hulagu, who chose the lower banks of the Kura River as his winter quarters and the foothills of Karadag as his summer quarters, made Tabriz, the central city of Azerbaijan, his military headquarters.
Berke Khan also desired to annex the fertile lands of Azerbaijan to the Golden Horde. He believed that, since his soldiers had participated in the conquest of Iran, Azerbaijan should be granted to him as a reward for their service. When negotiations over this matter yielded no results, Baybars capitalized on a once in a lifetime opportunity by directly contacting Berke Khan, seeing him as a powerful ally against the Ilkhanate. In the last months of 1261 (November-December), Baybars sent a letter to the Khan of the Golden Horde, written by Qadi Muhyiddin ibn Abd al-Zahir, urging Berke to wage war against Hulagu due to his Muslim faith.
Having had no prior relations with Berke, Baybars was unsure how his letter would be received. Therefore, he chose to send the letter via Alani traders instead of a direct embassy, showing his cautious approach to the potential alliance. Alans were an excellent choice due to their extensive trade networks and relative neutrality in the conflicts between the Mongol khanates –– a testament to Baybars’ strategic thinking and his ability to calculate different outcomes.
Contrary to Baybars’ fears, Berke was aware of the difficulties he would face in a war against Hulagu without an ally. When Berke received Baybars’ letter in 1261, he immediately realized the importance of this alliance. He informed his soldiers in Iran that their lives were in danger and instructed them to return home or, if unsuccessful, to seek refuge with Sultan Baybars in Egypt. This response marked the beginning of a strong and lasting friendship and alliance between the Golden Horde and the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate, initiated by the sincere efforts of Baybars and Berke.
Following this, on Dhul-Qidah 17, 660 AH (November 2, 1262), a group of one hundred Golden Horde soldiers followed Berke’s order and sought refuge in Egypt. Baybars, upon learning that these soldiers were sent by Berke, treated them with great honors and settled them in a district of Cairo known as Lok. By advising his soldiers in Iran to seek refuge in Egypt, Berke was effectively responding to Baybars’ letter sent a year earlier. Subsequently, Baybars sent a second letter to Berke, this time officially, without feeling the need to conceal it. This letter was sent with Fakih Mejdeddin Ruzveri, Emir Saifuddin Kusherbeg, and two guides from the Golden Horde soldiers who had recently taken refuge in Egypt. Baybars read this letter publicly before all the emirs for their approval.
In this letter, Baybars again incited Berke to wage war against Hulagu and provided information about Muslim territories. Additionally, he mentioned that he had re-established the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt, which had been abolished by Hulagu. Baybars even included a golden genealogy chart showing the caliph’s lineage at the end of the letter.
The Mamluk delegation, which departed in Muharram 661 AH (October 15 – November 15, 1262), instead of going directly to the Golden Horde, first reached Istanbul and met with Berke Khan’s envoys who were already in contact with Michael VIII, the Byzantine Emperor. This stop was not only a diplomatic courtesy and an opportunity to coordinate their efforts and align their strategies against common enemies like Hulagu Khan and the Ilkhanate but also a timely maneuver to insert the Mamluk factor into the equation and gather intelligence.
Meanwhile, back home in Cairo, Berke Khan’s delegation, consisting of Emir Jalaleddin ibn Qadi and Sheikh Nureddin Ali, arrived on 7 Sha’ban 661 AH (June 16, 1263). The names of these envoys suggest they were Muslims, chosen for their extensive knowledge of Islamic customs and tradition. By sending envoys with these qualities, Berke Khan hoped to establish a favorable impression in Egypt. In the letter he sent to Baybars with this delegation, Berke emphasized that he and his family were Muslims and stated that he was fighting Hulagu simply because Hulagu, as a non-Muslim, was harming Muslims. He also conveyed his happiness about the re-establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt. Berke requested Baybars to send a unit to the Euphrates basin against Hulagu and to assist the Anatolian Seljuk Sultan, Izzeddin Keykavus. At the same time, Ertugrul Bey was continuing to expand his territory and influence in the region by focusing on securing the borders and establishing a stable base for the Kayi tribe.
In his struggle against the Ilkhanids, Berke needed the alliance of Egypt. To secure this, he emphasized the Islamic religion and the duty of jihad. Thus, he hoped to provoke Baybars’ religious sentiments and encourage him to fight against Hulagu. Baybars sought to keep the Ilkhanids away from Syria and Egypt through this alliance, while Berke aimed to gain control over the fertile lands of Azerbaijan. During the Golden Horde delegation’s stay in Lok, a guesthouse at the time, the envoys frequently watched Baybars’ chovgan games and were registered by him into the Ahi organization. They were also dressed in futuwwa attire by the caliph.
Baybars prepared a delegation to accompany the envoys of the Golden Horde on their return journey. Additionally, Baybars sent a 70-page letter written by Abdul-Zahir to Berke, encouraging him to engage in jihad against Hulagu and expressing his constant readiness for an alliance. Along with this letter, Baybars sent many valuable gifts to the Golden Horde. Among the gifts, the most prominent was a Qur’an written in the script of Uthman ibn Affan, a customary gift in Medieval Islamic states. The list of gifts also included various sets of weapons, high-bred horses, gold and silver embroidered kitchenware, Black slaves, African animals, and many other items. The delegation departed from Egypt on a ship prepared by Baybars on Ramadan 17, 661 AH (July 25, 1263).
Shortly after the departure of the envoys, news arrived that the delegation heading to the Golden Horde had been detained by Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII. Although Baybars was angered by this action from Michael, with whom he and Berke Khan had previously had good relations, he did not want to lose this friendship, as Byzantium was the only country maintaining contact between him and the Golden Horde. Therefore, Baybars sent a letter to Michael, requesting the release of his envoys and permission for them to continue to the Golden Horde. Upon receiving Baybars’ letter, Michael released the Mamluk delegation and allowed them to proceed to the Golden Horde. It’s important to note that opening new unnecessary fronts is not a strategically viable decision, and Baybars, as a great tactician, knew this like a grand chess master knows his next several moves.
After a long and adventurous journey, the Mamluk delegation finally reached the Golden Horde, where they were received with profound respect by Berke Khan. It is certain that the gifts sent by Baybars to the Golden Horde, including the valuable Qur’an, greatly impressed Berke and his court.
Baybars welcomed the refugees and incorporated them into the state to gain leverage in the relationship. Shortly after the dispatch of this envoy to the Golden Horde, another group of Golden Horde soldiers stationed in Iran sought refuge in Egypt. On Dhul Hijja 7, 661 AH (October 12, 1263), these soldiers arrived in Cairo and were received with respect by Baybars. Shortly thereafter, these soldiers converted to Islam, and Baybars settled them in the Lok district, just as he had done with previous arrivals. Ibn Shaddad notes that many of these individuals were granted emir status by Baybars and were incorporated into the Bahri regiment.
The conflict between the two states had severe and far-reaching consequences. After this battle, Hulagu killed all the Golden Horde merchants in Tabriz. In retaliation, Berke took similar actions, leading to a sudden halt in trade between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate. As a result, the friendship and alliance that was initiated by Sultan Baybars between the Golden Horde and Egypt grew stronger. Deprived of their markets in Iran, Golden Horde merchants flocked to the Mamluk territories.
Upon Hulagu’s death in 1265, his son Abaka succeeded him. Although there was a brief period of peace between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate initially, it did not last long. Abaka managed to repel an attack led by Nogay, a commander of the Golden Horde, with difficulty. Shortly after this second attack, Berke died in 1266. He was succeeded by his brother Mengu Temir, who was not a Muslim.
Upon hearing of Berke’s death, Baybars immediately prepared a delegation and sent it to the Golden Horde in the early months of 666 AH (November-December 1267). In his letter, Baybars expressed condolences to Mengu Temir for his brother’s death and congratulated him on his accession. Baybars also urged Mengu Temir, as he had Berke, to wage war against the Ilkhanate.
However, the new Golden Horde Khan, Mengu Temir, not being a Muslim, posed a threat to the continuation of the alliance. Recognizing this danger, Baybars decided to establish connections with the influential members of the Golden Horde who had embraced Islam. First, he established relations with Nogay, who had participated in the war against the Ilkhanate and later played an important role in the administration of the Golden Horde. Baybars encouraged Nogay to urge Mengu Temir to fight against Abaka.
Thanks to these diplomatic efforts, which masterfully utilized their common religion and Kipchak origin, the new Golden Horde Khan, Mengu Temir, also showed effort in maintaining the alliance established with Egypt. In the next part, we will delve into Baybars’ relationship with Mengu Temir who decided to invade the Byzantines –– even though they were also an ally of Baybars. Stay tuned.
El Errante, interested in all things Turkic, posts on X @elerrantenomad