In 1260, Baybars ascended to power by eliminating Qutuz and led the state for a long period of seventeen years. Upon his accession, the realm was besieged by challenges on multiple fronts: the Mongols, whose incursions were a source of relentless pressure on the Islamic world, and the Armenians, who readily aligned themselves with the Mongols, adopting a confrontational stance. The state was not only imperiled by external adversaries but also suffered from a lack of cohesion internally. Baybars prioritized the restoration of internal order, quelling rebellions from emirs, and addressing disturbances to consolidate his authority before turning his attention to external threats. Understanding the critical role of the Caliphate system as a cornerstone of legitimacy in the Islamic tradition, Baybars embarked on a strategic endeavor to align his rule with the spiritual and political authority embodied by the Abbasid Caliphate, which long had been forgotten in the minds of Muslims as being an entity of any significant power. This alignment was not just symbolic but a deliberate effort to weave the fabric of his rule into the broader tapestry of Islamic governance.
Following the Mongol invasion of Baghdad and the assassination of the Abbasid Caliph Mu’tasim Billah, the Islamic world found itself without a caliph. Recognizing this void, Baybars decided to transfer the center of the Abbasid caliphate to Cairo. He aimed to legitimize his reign, fostering stability within the state, and bolstering political strength against external foes. In 1261, a man by the name of Abu’l-Qasim Ahmed, claiming to be a relative of the late Caliph, expressed his desire to join Baybars in Egypt through a letter. Baybars, who had already decided to bring Abu’l-Qasim Ahmed to Egypt, ordered his transfer to Cairo upon learning of his intentions. On June 9, 1261, A.D. (9th of Rajab, H.659), Abu’l-Qasim Ahmed arrived in Cairo and was met outside the city by Baybars. The Mamluk Sultan was accompanied by state dignitaries and a large number of people from the populace. Even Christians and Jews in Cairo, holding the Torah and the Gospels, were compelled to participate in this welcoming ceremony.
Four days after this grand reception, Baybars convened a meeting that included scholars, viziers, commanders, and the general populace. At this gathering, Abu’l-Qasim Ahmed’s lineage was presented, and the scholars were asked to confirm its authenticity. Following thorough verification, Abu’l-Qasim Ahmed was declared the new Caliph with the title al-Mustansir Billah. Baybars, along with everyone present at the meeting, pledged allegiance to the new caliph. After receiving allegiance, the caliph bestowed upon Baybars the sword of authority, granting him the mandate to rule over all Islamic lands and those to be conquered. Baybars ordered that the caliph’s name be mentioned in sermons and inscribed on minted coins. This event significantly enhanced the Mamluks’ prestige in the eyes of Muslims, as they’d taken over relatively recently, and strengthened their position in the Islamic world. By securing the caliph’s endorsement, Baybars not only achieved supremacy in the Islamic world but also legitimized his sultanate according to the sharia. In legitimizing his rule, Baybars took on the mantle of Islam’s defender and assumed the role of a leader in the Islamic world. In this context, he established favorable relations with Muslim Turkic states, particularly the Anatolian Seljuk State, and provided support to Muslims in Anatolia.
After spending some time in Egypt, the caliph expressed his desire to recapture Baghdad, the long-standing center of the caliphate. He communicated this wish to Baybars. Initially, Baybars decided to provide the Caliph with a military force of 10,000 soldiers. However, one of his commanders cautioned Baybars against dispatching such a large number of troops to Baghdad with the Caliph at a time when their military strength was crucially needed elsewhere. Heeding this advice, Baybars instead provided the Caliph with a contingent of 300 soldiers. Baybars and his forces escorted the Caliph towards Baghdad until Damascus, after which Baybars returned to Cairo on October 13, 1261. The result was a complete disaster. On December 28, 1261, when the Caliph arrived at the location of Ane, he was ambushed by a Mongol unit under the command of Kara Boğa, who had learned of his movement towards Baghdad. The Mongol forces decimated his army, composed of Turkmen and Arabs, slaughtering almost all of them. Among those killed was the Caliph himself.
Upon receiving the news of the Caliph’s assassination by the Mongols, Baybars was deeply affected yet somewhat relieved. Despite offering all necessary assistance for the Caliph’s return to Baghdad, Baybars was not keen on the idea. He believed that keeping the Caliph in Egypt would enable him to establish greater influence over the Islamic states. Upon learning of the caliph’s assassination, Baybars summoned Abu’l-Abbas Ahmed, another descendant of the Abbasid line, to Egypt and declared him caliph. On January 19, 1262, Baybars welcomed Abu’l-Abbas Ahmed outside Cairo and accommodated him at Cairo’s Burj al-Kebir, ensuring all his needs were met. A year later, on November 22, 1262, Baybars pledged allegiance to Abu’l-Abbas Ahmed, who he declared Caliph with the title Hakim Bi-Amrillah. However, Baybars did not permit the new Caliph to return to Baghdad. Instead, he provided him with a stipend and assigned a contingent of the palace guard, forcing him to reside in Egypt. As a result, This second Abbasid caliph in Egypt relinquished full control of state governance to Baybars. The caliphs in Egypt, their powers curtailed by Baybars, did not interfere in state politics. The re-establishment of the caliphate in Egypt aimed to leverage the caliph’s religious influence while preventing any political interference with the sultans, as they had just received a fresh reminder of why they shouldn’t do that. By bringing the caliphate to his country, Baybars not only placed this office under his protection but also ensured that the caliphs remained distanced from the administration of the state. Following the termination of the Abbasid caliphate, Baybars’ re-establishment of the caliphate in Egypt marked the transfer of the caliphate to the Mamluks. The caliphate remained in Egypt under the Mamluks until the Ottomans terminated the Mamluk State and seized the caliphate for themselves. Having the caliphate in Egypt significantly benefited the Mamluks, enhancing their influence over the Islamic world.
By reinstating the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt, Baybars did more than offer refuge to an Abbasid descendant; he effectively reasserted the historical continuity and religious legitimacy of his rule. This act of restoration served as a powerful statement to both his subjects and rivals, reinforcing his position as a legitimate ruler who not only prioritized the restoration of internal order and quelled rebellions but also positioned himself as a guardian of Islamic values and traditions in the face of external threats. Baybars’ tenure was marked by an intelligent foreign policy with battles against states like the Mongols and Armenians, as well as the forging of alliances with others. His endeavors throughout his reign cemented his legacy as one of the Mamluk State’s most distinguished sultans. In the upcoming installment, we will cover Baybars’ strategic alliance with Franks and Golden Horde and his prowess in international politics and power projection.
El Errante, expert on all things Turkic, posts @elerrantenomad